Which media suitable for distance education

The painful anxieties that learners experience in any instructional setting tend to be exacerbated when that learning is mediated by technology Garrison, They see a large amount of interaction as inhibiting the independence of the learner. Although distance education is premised on creating the potential for greater independence for the learner, it is often "just as confining and inflexible as other forms of education" Lewis, , p. Sewart suggests that distance education students, perhaps, have greater freedom, but with that freedom comes responsibilities.

Freedom demands that the student make a number of important decisions that would normally be made for him:. It is an interesting and perhaps sometimes infuriating paradox; this provision of flexibility to cater for individuals needs inevitably results in increasing complexity of administrative and organizational procedures which may present the student with problems Sewart, , p.

The issue of learner support has received wide attention in distance education. The research, however, has been varied and inconclusive. After examining one hundred seven articles to determine whether there were predictors of successful student support, Dillon and Blanchard conclude that the reported research was mixed.

They propose a model to examine the support needs of the distance student, related to institutional characteristics, course content and the technology. In a study analyzing learner support services in a state-wide distance education system, Dillon, Gunawardena and Parker outline the function and effectiveness of one learner support system and make recommendations for examining student-program interactions.

Feasley comments that although research on student support falls largely into the evaluation category, there are some very useful case studies and institutional surveys such as reports issued by FernUniversitat, National Home Study Council which summarize statistics about student services for a number of institutions.

Wright comments that the largest number of studies related to student support have been conducted outside the United States with large distance education programs. The student support activities reported are: pre-enrollment activities, tutorial services as well as counseling and advising services. In addition to student support, several ethical and administrative issues related to students are repeated in the current literature as well. The mediation of technology coupled with the distance between instructor and student poses questions related to admission, counseling and retention.

Nelson states that admission requirements should consider the effects of the individual's cognitive styles as these often affect student achievement in programs characterized by mediated communications and limited personal contact. Herein two issues arise. First, the nearly impossible task of understanding the life situation of the learner when distance and time interfere with communication, makes counseling a difficult task at best. Second, the monetary requirements of the distance education institution and the well-being of the student who may or may not be advised into a distance education environment must be considered.

Counseling in a traditional setting requires expertise in a number of psychological and academic areas. The recent literature has offered various profiles of the distance education student. Counseling professionals should review the research on student needs and develop new methodologies for assisting students at a distance. Additional research is called for in all areas of student interaction with the learning environment. Learning and Characteristics of Learners.

The study of learning and characteristics of learners engages the largest number of researchers and includes studies of learning styles, attitudes, personality, locus of control, motivation and attrition. Included are general studies about cognition and metacognition as well as specific studies related to the particular needs of the distance learner.

Many studies have been single group evaluations, few with randomization of subjects or programmatic investigations. Some exploratory research has involved a small number of participants in short interventions.

Although these efforts yield interesting insights, they have not helped solve the problem of isolating and testing variables which might predict academic success. Experimental studies often use thin descriptions and do not provide deep contextual information. Descriptive studies often lack generalizability are not qualitatively rich.

Research reports which do appear in the literature are often inconclusive. Reports in the literature suggest that some combination of cognitive style, personality characteristics, and self-expectations can be predictors of success in distance education programs. It appears that those students who are most successful in distance learning situations tend to be independent, autonomous learners who prefer to control their own learning situations.

Another motivation which reportedly influences academic persistence is the desire to improve employment possibilities, von Prummer, Research findings suggest that it is the combination of personal such as learning style , environmental and social factors which must be taken into account when predicting academic success in distance learning programs.

Canfield developed a learning style inventory that conceptualized learning styles as composed of preferred conditions, content, mode and expectancy scores. They indicate that an understanding of how individual learners approach learning may make it possible for the distance educator to see a pattern of learning styles and plan or adjust course presentations accordingly. They conclude by saying that adults may or may not learn more easily when the style of presentation matches the students learning style, but when the two do match, the students report being more satisfied with the course.

Perhaps the most interesting work in cognition appears outside the traditional confines of the distance education literature. Research which examines the interaction of learners and delivery media is currently being conducted with multimedia. These studies examine learning and problem solving in asynchronous, virtual environments in which the learner is encouraged to progress and interact with learning materials in a very individual way.

It was hypothesized that the attributes of videodisc, which allow the portrayal of rich audio and visual images of a problem situation, would enhance the problem solving abilities of learners. Research results showed significant gains for the video-based group over the text based group, not only in solving the original Jasper problems, but in identifying and solving similar and related problems. The rich video-based format context was found to simulate a real world context for problem solving Van Haneghan, et al.

In a similar vein, the Young Children's literacy project uses a Vygotsky scaffolding approach to support the construction of mental model building skills for listening and storytelling Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, Programs like Jasper and the Young Children's literacy project provide robust sensory environments for developing metacognitive strategies and participating in critical thinking. These cognitive approaches to teaching abstract thinking skills have found fertile ground in the design and development of multimedia programs.

Individualized instruction delivered in multimedia settings has begun to blur the distinction between distance education and traditional education. The use of computer technologies to enhance thinking has generated interest in all areas of the curriculum.

Collaborative interactions between learner and technology have caused cognitive psychologists to re-examine the effects of computer technology on intellectual performance. They argue that it is this collaborative cognitive processing between intelligent technology and learner which may have the potential for affecting human intellectual performance. The authors make the distinction between effects with technology, in which the learner enters into a partnership in which the technology assumes part of the intellectual burden of processing information calculator , and effects of technology see The former role of technology is what has been referred to by Pea as distributed cognition see The distributed model of cognition has its roots in the culturalhistorical tradition and is reflected in the work of Luria and Vygotsky This view of the distribution of cognition from a cultural-historical perspective maintains that learning is not an individual process but is part of a larger activity that involves the teacher, pupil, and cultural artifacts of the classroom.

Knowledge does not reside with an individual alone but is distributed among the tools and artifacts of the culture. The technologies of today have created graphic interfaces that offer symbiotic and virtual environments distributed between human and machine. One example of such a symbiotic environment is a computer conference network called the WELL. It is a "virtual community" where people meet, converse, and socialize.

This "digital watering hole for information-age hunters and gatherers" has developed into a unique social and communication phenomenon Rheingold, It functions as cafe, beauty shop, town square, pub, lecture hall, and library.

In short, it is a network of communications in cyberspace, a true virtual community. The social and cultural ramifications of this type of community, which functions in cognitive and social space rather than geographic space, has vast implications for research in distance education. These new learning environments are distance learning settings, and they prompt researchers to ask further questions:.

How do these environments enhance cognitive activities? Which personal learning-style factors are important to consider in designing interactive materials for effective instruction? Can we predict which program elements are likely to enhance student learning? A number of research studies have been conducted around the issues of designing course material for distance education.

Learner feedback is listed as one of the five most important considerations in course design and instruction, and it is identified by Howard as the most significant component in his model for effective course design. Other major issues which relate to course design are effective instructional design, selection of appropriate media based on instructional needs, basic evaluation, and programmatic research.

There appears to be little reported systematic research in this area because of the time and costs involved in conducting such large scale projects. McCleary and Egan examined course design and found that their second and third courses received higher ratings as a result of improving three elements of course design, one of which was feedback.

Others suggest models combining cognitive complexity, intellectual activity and forms of instruction for integrating the use of technology in course delivery. Although consideration is given in the literature to elements of course design such as interactivity, student support, media selection, instructional design issues and feedback, little research has been reported other than evaluative studies.

Few are generalizable to global situations. Although course design is a primary component of large scale international distance education programs, little attention has been paid to the underlying social and cultural assumptions within which such instruction is designed.

Critical theorists have examined how teaching materials and classroom practices reflect social assumptions of validity, authority and empowerment. Although the thread of critical theory has woven its way through the fabric of the literature in education, nowhere is it more important to examine educational assumptions underlying course design than in distance education.

Courses designed for distance delivery often cost thousands of dollars to produce and reach hundreds of thousands of students. Not only are hidden curricula in the classroom well documented, there is a growing body of evidence in the literature which critically analyzes the impact of social norms on the production of educational media.

In their book, Ellsworth and Whatley examine the ways in which particular historical and social perspectives combine to produce images in educational media which serve the interests of a particular social and historical interpretation of values. Distance learning materials are designed to rely heavily on visual materials to maintain student interest.

Film, video and still photography should no longer be viewed as neutral carriers of information. In a seminal book of readings Hlynka and Belland explore critical inquiry in the field of Educational Technology as a third paradigm, equally as important as the qualitative and quantitative perspectives.

This collection of essays encourages instructional designers to examine issues in educational media and technology using paradigms drawn from the humanities and social sciences; sociology and anthropology. The examination of issues concerning the use of technology is especially important when designing courses for distance education. There are six factors that are particularly critical and need to be considered.

In order to distinguish the characteristics of the communications technologies currently being used in distance education it is necessary to adopt a classification system, although any classification system may not remain current for very long with the constant development of new technologies. Media and Course Design. In a recent attempt to classify the media used in distance education, Bates notes that there should be two distinctions.

The first is that it is important to make a distinction between "media" and "technology. Therefore, each medium has its own unique way of presenting knowledge, and organizing it which is reflected in particular formats or styles of presentation. Bates notes that in distance education, the most important four media are: text, audio, television, and computing.

Each medium, however, can usually be carried by more than one technology. For example, the audio medium can be carried by audiocassettes, radio, and telephone, while the television medium can be carried by broadcasting, videocassettes, videodiscs, cable, satellite, fiber optics, ITFS and microwave.

Therefore, a variety of different technologies may be used to deliver one medium. The second distinction is the one between primarily one-way and primarily two-way technologies. One way technologies such as radio and broadcast television, do not provide opportunities for interaction, while two-way technologies such as videoconferencing or interactive television, allow for interaction between learners and instructors and among learners themselves.

For the purpose of this chapter, we would like to expand on a definition adopted by Willen who noted that where distance teaching and learning is concerned, three characteristics have proved critical to the optimization of the study situation: a the ability of the medium to reach all learners, or provide access, b the flexibility of the medium; and c the two-way communication capability of the medium.

We feel that it is necessary to expand these three characteristics to include three others: the symbolic characteristics of the medium, the social presence conveyed by the medium, and the human-machine interface for a particular technology. Whatever classification system is used to describe the technologies, we feel that six important characteristics need to be kept in mind in the adoption and use of these technologies for distance education:.

Course Design and the International Market. Issues which examine course design in distance education cross geographic boundaries. Courses which are produced in North America are exported across the world.

There is a widespread belief that Western technologies, particularly the computer, are culturally neutral and can be used to modernize traditional societies. When distance education programs are delivered to developing countries, cultural differences are often dealt with by simply translating the existing software, or by writing new software in the local language. What remains is still instruction based on a set of cultural assumptions emphasizing the view that Western technology and science represent the most advanced stage in cultural evolution.

This rationalist, secularist and individualist philosophy remains at the tacit level and suggests that, for any country, true modernization relies on the scientific method and the adoption of culture-free technology. The imported technology boasts capabilities based on assumptions which are frequently in direct opposition to traditions and social practices in the local culture.

Critical theorists see Chapter 9 , and others, have engaged in the debate over obvious discrepancies between the ideal Western view of life and the reality of deteriorating social fabric, loss of traditional values, high crime and drug rates and other visible social ills. The Western view of modernization and progress have not been universally accepted as ideal. However by embracing new communication technologies, non-Western countries are buying into a new set of cultural assumptions.

The danger is that this may occur at the cost of their own indigenous traditions. For example, do students have separate means to use CD-ROM, floppy disc, videotape, audiotape, slides or manipulative materials? Will interaction be handled by e-mail, online discussion groups, telephone individual or conference calls , infrequent face-to-face meetings, or postal correspondence? One emerging trend is the hybrid approach to teaching and learning at a distance.

There are many opportunities for creating hybrid distance education. One of the most common designs is online with both face-to-face and telephone conference calls within a single course. Hybrid courses do not change the decisions about media to be used, but they do require new instructional designs. Hybrid distance education usually facilitates interactivity among students and between the instructor and students.

One example is a hybrid course that is offered primarily online, with students meeting face-to-face at the beginning of the course or at mid-point and the instructor initiating a conference call with groups every other week. This approach helps to replicate the social element of traditional courses and student conversations before and after classes and in the coffee shop.

When the social factor is included using some of these techniques, there are fewer concerns about student isolation, which can otherwise be a fairly frequent complaint of distance education courses.

Special considerations for distance learning are as follows: 1 determine your primary delivery approach online or hybrid ; 2 review the course outline to determine where media can be used to facilitate learning; 3 ascertain availability of student access to the media selected; and 4 locate appropriate resources to fit your objectives or plan to create them.

Be sure to consider alternative media that may be less expensive, yet potentially as effective as more expensive media. For example, print, audio and video recordings, and the telephone should be considered in the selection process.

The challenge is to select and provide appropriate media that will accomplish learning objectives in the most cost-effective manner.

Remember, there are often less expensive alternatives that will accomplish the same objectives. A useful Media Selection Worksheet can offer a beginning for planning media use. Here is one: www. Select Browse Strategies and determine which processes best suit your needs. An excellent overview of telecommunications media for distance learning is available at: www.

Page 7 lists principles for instructional media and tools. Visit www. Clarke, A. ED Dede, C. The multiple-media difference. EJ Gibbs, W. Virtual courses and visual media. In "Vision quest: Journeys toward visual literacy. Gunawardena, C.

Distance Education. Jonassen, Ed. Popo, W. Integration of educational media in higher education classes. Schlosser, L. Simonson, M. Smaldino, S. He is committed to the coursework, usually for the purpose of advancing in his career. For this reason, we can expect quality work and diligent participation from students of today especially in the distance learning context. The distance education offers flexible learning through both online and print-based materials.

Distance education courses are designed to provide one of the study options to students and others who are unable to attend scheduled classes on campus or who want to experience distance learning as part of their program. The Internet is rapidly becoming the biggest repository of information we have ever known.

The key will be our ability to find, evaluate and use the information it provides Students must know how to evaluate data. Online learning can be a lifeline to those who have obstacles, such as geographical distances or physical disabilities. Distance education suggests that collaboration and competition are two sides of a spinning coin. And finally to extend the media of distance learning beyond print due to changing work patterns , changing social patterns, changing education patterns therefore policy makers need to make wise philosophical and policy decisions about using distance education.

Distance education is inevitably linked to media and technology. The organizational pattern and operating practices of a distance education facility are generally based upon the same educational philosophy as conventional system. However the use of media is greater in Distance Learning. Various technologies and delivery media are available for distance education.

Different media types are used to deliver information. Each medium and each technology has its own strengths and weaknesses. Many factors control these media technologies. How a medium is used is more important than what particular technologies are selected.

The use of the medium is part of the design of the distance education program itself. Certain resources may provide a better framework and cater to the different perspectives of the distance education learner: That is, the sender and receiver do not communicate at the same time. Some distance learning provide what's called "video-based instruction". In such program, video tapes are the main medium of delivery of information to the learner.

Radio and television broadcasting has been used for educational purposes for many years There are different types of broadcast: public, cable, and satellite. Some of the advantages of radio and television broadcasting is that they Audio- and videotapes have come to play an increasingly important role as media for distance education.

These technologies are convenient and cost-effective. These media can be used to present the views of experts, which would increase the credibility of and interest in the materials. Materials that cannot be communicated by print could be communicated this way. Video is a powerful medium in terms of capturing attention, and conveying a lot of information quickly. Producing audio- or videotape helps keeping students in track, and get people in the community involved, and may recruit new learners to the institute.

Broadcast may be provided to learners through cable television network or satellite broadcast. Those channels can provide good quality broadcast and dedicated channels for educational purposes. An important disadvantage of television broadcast that this site lists is that broadcast delivery encourages passive viewing rather than active participation. Students lack control over the medium and are unable to stop the flow of information to ask questions and enhance understanding.

Teleconferencing involves the interaction of students and instructors via some form of telecommunications technology. Services include producing, hosting, or broadcasting satellite downlinks, uplinks, or 2-way teleconferences to a number of locations. Computers can interface with the TV system for showing graphics or other visual aids and the Internet. Supported with audio samples.